Diagnostik der Metabolischen Dysfunktion-assoziierten Steatohepatitis (MASH) - Übersichtsarbeit, Teil 1
Hans-Holger Bleß / Dr. rer. nat. Ines Witte
Die Metabolische Dysfunktion-assoziierte Steatotische Lebererkrankung (MASLD), vormals bekannt als nichtalkoholische Fettlebererkrankung (NAFLD), ist eine zunehmende Herausforderung im Gesundheitswesen, eng verbunden mit dem metabolischen Syndrom. Sie manifestiert sich von einfacher Steatose bis hin zu Steatohepatitis (MASH), Fibrose und Zirrhose. Die revidierte Nomenklatur reflektiert besser die Rolle metabolischer Störungen. Die Pathophysiologie ist komplex, geprägt von metabolischen Risikofaktoren, Lipotoxizität und Entzündungsprozessen. Fortschritte in der Forschung betonen die Bedeutung mitochondrialer Funktionen und Immunreaktionen. In der Diagnostik haben nicht-invasive Methoden Vorrang, um Risiken und Kosten zu minimieren. Bildgebende Verfahren und serumbasierte Scores unterstützen die Beurteilung der Fibrosestadien. Die Behandlung konzentriert sich auf Lebensstiländerungen, insbesondere Gewichtsreduktion und physische Aktivität. Pharmakologische Interventionen befinden sich noch in der Erforschung, mit vielversprechenden Ansätzen in klinischen Studien. Die hohe Prävalenz von MASLD bei Diabetespatienten und die Verbindung zu schweren Komplikationen unterstreichen die Dringlichkeit effektiver Diagnose- und Behandlungsstrategien. Zukünftige Forschung und innovative Therapien sind entscheidend, um die Prognose für Betroffene zu verbessern und die Krankheitslast zu verringern.
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Erstveröffentlichungsdatum: 02.04.2024
Zusammenfassung: Diagnostik der Metabolischen Dysfunktion-assoziierten Steatohepatitis (MASH) - Übersichtsarbeit, Teil 1
Die Metabolische Dysfunktion-assoziierte Steatotische Lebererkrankung (MASLD), vormals bekannt als nichtalkoholische Fettlebererkrankung (NAFLD), ist eine zunehmende Herausforderung im Gesundheitswesen, eng verbunden mit dem metabolischen Syndrom. Sie manifestiert sich von einfacher Steatose bis hin zu Steatohepatitis (MASH), Fibrose und Zirrhose. Die revidierte Nomenklatur reflektiert besser die Rolle metabolischer Störungen. Die Pathophysiologie ist komplex, geprägt von metabolischen Risikofaktoren, Lipotoxizität und Entzündungsprozessen. Fortschritte in der Forschung betonen die Bedeutung mitochondrialer Funktionen und Immunreaktionen. In der Diagnostik haben nicht-invasive Methoden Vorrang, um Risiken und Kosten zu minimieren. Bildgebende Verfahren und serumbasierte Scores unterstützen die Beurteilung der Fibrosestadien. Die Behandlung konzentriert sich auf Lebensstiländerungen, insbesondere Gewichtsreduktion und physische Aktivität. Pharmakologische Interventionen befinden sich noch in der Erforschung, mit vielversprechenden Ansätzen in klinischen Studien. Die hohe Prävalenz von MASLD bei Diabetespatienten und die Verbindung zu schweren Komplikationen unterstreichen die Dringlichkeit effektiver Diagnose- und Behandlungsstrategien. Zukünftige Forschung und innovative Therapien sind entscheidend, um die Prognose für Betroffene zu verbessern und die Krankheitslast zu verringern.
Zusammenfassung: Diagnosis of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) – a Review, Part 1
Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), formerly known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), is a growing public health challenge closely associated with metabolic syndrome. It manifests itself from simple steatosis to steatohepatitis (MASH), fibrosis and cirrhosis. The revised nomenclature better reflects the role of metabolic disorders. The pathophysiology is complex, characterised by metabolic risk factors, lipotoxicity and inflammatory processes. Advances in research emphasise the importance of mitochondrial functions and immune responses. In diagnostics, non-invasive methods have priority in order to minimise risks and costs. Imaging techniques and serum-based scores support the assessment of fibrosis stages. Treatment focusses on lifestyle changes, especially weight reduction and physical activity. Pharmacological interventions are still under investigation, with promising approaches in clinical trials. The high prevalence of MASLD in diabetic patients and its association with severe complications emphasise the urgency of effective diagnostic and treatment strategies. Future research and innovative therapies are crucial to improve the prognosis for affected individuals and reduce the burden of disease.
Schlüsselwörter (Deutsch)
Behandlung, Diagnostik, Fettleber, Fibrose-Staging, Steatohepatitis
Schlüsselwörter (Englisch)
diagnostics, Fatty liver, Fibrosis staging, Fibrosis treatment, Steatohepatitis
Literatur
1. Weiß J, Rau M, Geier A. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: epidemiology, clinical course, investigation, and treatment. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2014; 111(26):447–52. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2014.0447. 2. Roeb E, Canbay A, Bantel H, Bojunga J, Laffolie J de, Demir M et al. Aktualisierte S2k-Leitlinie nicht-alkoholische Fettlebererkrankung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Gastroenterologie, Verdauungs- und Stoffwechselkrankheiten (DGVS) – April 2022 – AWMF-Registernummer: 021–025. Z Gastroenterol 2022; 60(9):1346–421. doi: 10.1055/a-1880-2283. 3. Rinella ME, Lazarus JV, Ratziu V, Francque SM, Sanyal AJ, Kanwal F et al. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. J Hepatol 2023; 79(6):1542–56. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2023.06.003. 4. Israelsen M, Torp N, Johansen S, Thiele M, Krag A. MetALD: new opportunities to understand the role of alcohol in steatotic liver disease. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2023; 8(10):866–8. doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(23)00206-6. 5. Åberg F, Byrne CD, Pirola CJ, Männistö V, Sookoian S. Alcohol consumption and metabolic syndrome: Clinical and epidemiological impact on liver disease. J Hepatol 2023; 78(1):191–206. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2022.08.030. 6. Lee BP, Dodge JL, Terrault NA. National prevalence estimates for steatotic liver disease and subclassifications using consensus nomenclature. Hepatology 2023. doi: 10.1097/HEP.0000000000000604. 7. Hagström H, Vessby J, Ekstedt M, Shang Y. 99% of patients with NAFLD meet MASLD criteria and natural history is therefore identical. J Hepatol 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2023.08.026. 8. Li M, Zhang W, Li X, Liang S, Zhang Y, Mo Y et al. Metabolic and Risk Profiles of Lean and Non-Lean Hepatic Steatosis among US Adults. Nutrients 2023; 15(13). doi: 10.3390/nu15132856. 9. Sookoian S, Pirola CJ. Systematic review with meta-analysis: risk factors for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease suggest a shared altered metabolic and cardiovascular profile between lean and obese patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 46(2):85–95. doi: 10.1111/apt.14112. 10. Arrese M, Cabrera D, Kalergis AM, Feldstein AE. Innate Immunity and Inflammation in NAFLD/NASH. Dig Dis Sci 2016; 61(5):1294–303. doi: 10.1007/s10620-016-4049-x. 11. Day CP, James OF. Steatohepatitis: a tale of two „hits“? Gastroenterology 1998; 114(4):842–5. doi: 10.1016/s0016-5085(98)70599-2. 12. Mehta R, Jeiran K, Koenig AB, Otgonsuren M, Goodman Z, Baranova A et al. The role of mitochondrial genomics in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). BMC Med Genet 2016; 17(1):63. doi: 10.1186/s12881-016-0324-0. 13. Chow MD, Lee Y-H, Guo GL. The role of bile acids in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Mol Aspects Med 2017; 56:34–44. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2017.04.004. 14. Tilg H, Adolph TE, Moschen AR. Multiple Parallel Hits Hypothesis in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Revisited After a Decade. Hepatology 2021; 73(2):833–42. doi: 10.1002/hep.31518. 15. Bedossa P, Poitou C, Veyrie N, Bouillot J-L, Basdevant A, Paradis V et al. Histopathological algorithm and scoring system for evaluation of liver lesions in morbidly obese patients. Hepatology 2012; 56(5):1751–9. doi: 10.1002/hep.25889. 16. Kleiner DE, Brunt EM, van Natta M, Behling C, Contos MJ, Cummings OW et al. Design and validation of a histological scoring system for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 2005; 41(6):1313–21. doi: 10.1002/hep.20701. 17. Bellentani S. The epidemiology of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Liver Int 2017; 37 Suppl 1:81–4. doi: 10.1111/liv.13299. 18. Bataller R, Rombouts K, Altamirano J, Marra F. Fibrosis in alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2011; 25(2):231–44. doi: 10.1016/j.bpg.2011.02.010. 19. Burra P, Becchetti C, Germani G. NAFLD and liver transplantation: Disease burden, current management and future challenges. JHEP Rep 2020; 2(6):100192. doi: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2020.100192. 20. Fuchs A, Janssens U, Mayet W-J, Mertens P, Müller O-A, Pfeifer M et al., Hrsg. Rationelle Diagnostik und Therapie in der inneren Medizin: Kapitel 7.3: Nicht-alkoholische Fettlebererkrankung (NAFLD). München: Elsevier GmbH; 2022. 21. Fuchs A, Janssens U, Mayet W-J, Mertens P, Müller O-A, Pfeifer M et al., Hrsg. Rationelle Diagnostik und Therapie in der inneren Medizin: Kapitel 7.2: Alkoholische Lebererkrankungen. München: Elsevier GmbH; 2022. 22. Desmet VJ, Gerber M, Hoofnagle JH, Manns M, Scheuer PJ. Classification of chronic hepatitis: diagnosis, grading and staging. Hepatology 1994; 19(6):1513–20. 23. Ishak K, Baptista A, Bianchi L, Callea F, Groote J de, Gudat F et al. Histological grading and staging of chronic hepatitis. J Hepatol 1995; 22(6):696–9. doi: 10.1016/0168-8278(95)80226-6. 24. Bedossa P, Poynard T. An algorithm for the grading of activity in chronic hepatitis C. The METAVIR Cooperative Study Group. Hepatology 1996; 24(2):289–93. doi: 10.1002/hep.510240201. 25. Younossi ZM, Golabi P, Avila L de, Paik JM, Srishord M, Fukui N et al. The global epidemiology of NAFLD and NASH in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hepatol 2019; 71(4):793–801. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2019.06.021. 26. Castera L, Laouenan C, Vallet-Pichard A, Vidal-Trécan T, Manchon P, Paradis V et al. High Prevalence of NASH and Advanced Fibrosis in Type 2 Diabetes: A Prospective Study of 330 Outpatients Undergoing Liver Biopsies for Elevated ALT, Using a Low Threshold. Diabetes Care 2023; 46(7):1354–62. doi: 10.2337/dc22-2048. 27. Castera L, Laouenan C, Vallet-Pichard A, Vidal-Trécan T, Manchon P, Paradis V et al. High Prevalence of NASH and Advanced Fibrosis in Type 2 Diabetes: A Prospective Study of 330 Outpatients Undergoing Liver Biopsies for Elevated ALT, Using a Low Threshold. Diabetes Care 2023; 46(7):1354–62. doi: 10.2337/dc22-2048. 28. Harrison SA, Ratziu V, Anstee QM, Noureddin M, Sanyal AJ, Schattenberg JM et al. Design of the phase 3 MAESTRO clinical program to evaluate resmetirom for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2024; 59(1):51–63. doi: 10.1111/apt.17734. 29. Demir M, Lang S, Nierhoff D, Drebber U, Hardt A, Wedemeyer I et al. Stepwise combination of simple noninvasive fibrosis scoring systems increases diagnostic accuracy in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Clin Gastroenterol 2013; 47(8):719–26. doi: 10.1097/MCG.0b013e3182819a89. 30. Petta S, Wong VW-S, Cammà C, Hiriart J-B, Wong GL-H, Vergniol J et al. Serial combination of non-invasive tools improves the diagnostic accuracy of severe liver fibrosis in patients with NAFLD. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 46(6):617–27. doi: 10.1111/apt.14219. 31. Boursier J, Vergniol J, Guillet A, Hiriart J-B, Lannes A, Le Bail B et al. Diagnostic accuracy and prognostic significance of blood fibrosis tests and liver stiffness measurement by FibroScan in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol 2016; 65(3):570–8. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.04.023. 32. Labenz C, Huber Y, Kalliga E, Nagel M, Ruckes C, Straub BK et al. Predictors of advanced fibrosis in non-cirrhotic non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Germany. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2018; 48(10):1109–16. doi: 10.1111/apt.14976. 33. Wong VW-S, Vergniol J, Wong GL-H, Foucher J, Chan HL-Y, Le Bail B et al. Diagnosis of fibrosis and cirrhosis using liver stiffness measurement in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 2010; 51(2):454–62. doi: 10.1002/hep.23312. 1. Weiß J, Rau M, Geier A. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: epidemiology, clinical course, investigation, and treatment. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2014; 111(26):447–52. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2014.0447. 2. Roeb E, Canbay A, Bantel H, Bojunga J, Laffolie J de, Demir M et al. Aktualisierte S2k-Leitlinie nicht-alkoholische Fettlebererkrankung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Gastroenterologie, Verdauungs- und Stoffwechselkrankheiten (DGVS) – April 2022 – AWMF-Registernummer: 021–025. Z Gastroenterol 2022; 60(9):1346–421. doi: 10.1055/a-1880-2283. 3. Rinella ME, Lazarus JV, Ratziu V, Francque SM, Sanyal AJ, Kanwal F et al. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. J Hepatol 2023; 79(6):1542–56. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2023.06.003. 4. Israelsen M, Torp N, Johansen S, Thiele M, Krag A. MetALD: new opportunities to understand the role of alcohol in steatotic liver disease. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2023; 8(10):866–8. doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(23)00206-6. 5. Åberg F, Byrne CD, Pirola CJ, Männistö V, Sookoian S. Alcohol consumption and metabolic syndrome: Clinical and epidemiological impact on liver disease. J Hepatol 2023; 78(1):191–206. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2022.08.030. 6. Lee BP, Dodge JL, Terrault NA. National prevalence estimates for steatotic liver disease and subclassifications using consensus nomenclature. Hepatology 2023. doi: 10.1097/HEP.0000000000000604. 7. Hagström H, Vessby J, Ekstedt M, Shang Y. 99% of patients with NAFLD meet MASLD criteria and natural history is therefore identical. J Hepatol 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2023.08.026. 8. Li M, Zhang W, Li X, Liang S, Zhang Y, Mo Y et al. Metabolic and Risk Profiles of Lean and Non-Lean Hepatic Steatosis among US Adults. Nutrients 2023; 15(13). doi: 10.3390/nu15132856. 9. Sookoian S, Pirola CJ. Systematic review with meta-analysis: risk factors for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease suggest a shared altered metabolic and cardiovascular profile between lean and obese patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 46(2):85–95. doi: 10.1111/apt.14112. 10. Arrese M, Cabrera D, Kalergis AM, Feldstein AE. Innate Immunity and Inflammation in NAFLD/NASH. Dig Dis Sci 2016; 61(5):1294–303. doi: 10.1007/s10620-016-4049-x. 11. Day CP, James OF. Steatohepatitis: a tale of two „hits“? Gastroenterology 1998; 114(4):842–5. doi: 10.1016/s0016-5085(98)70599-2. 12. Mehta R, Jeiran K, Koenig AB, Otgonsuren M, Goodman Z, Baranova A et al. The role of mitochondrial genomics in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). BMC Med Genet 2016; 17(1):63. doi: 10.1186/s12881-016-0324-0. 13. Chow MD, Lee Y-H, Guo GL. The role of bile acids in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Mol Aspects Med 2017; 56:34–44. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2017.04.004. 14. Tilg H, Adolph TE, Moschen AR. Multiple Parallel Hits Hypothesis in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Revisited After a Decade. Hepatology 2021; 73(2):833–42. doi: 10.1002/hep.31518. 15. Bedossa P, Poitou C, Veyrie N, Bouillot J-L, Basdevant A, Paradis V et al. Histopathological algorithm and scoring system for evaluation of liver lesions in morbidly obese patients. Hepatology 2012; 56(5):1751–9. doi: 10.1002/hep.25889. 16. Kleiner DE, Brunt EM, van Natta M, Behling C, Contos MJ, Cummings OW et al. Design and validation of a histological scoring system for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 2005; 41(6):1313–21. doi: 10.1002/hep.20701. 17. Bellentani S. The epidemiology of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Liver Int 2017; 37 Suppl 1:81–4. doi: 10.1111/liv.13299. 18. Bataller R, Rombouts K, Altamirano J, Marra F. Fibrosis in alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2011; 25(2):231–44. doi: 10.1016/j.bpg.2011.02.010. 19. Burra P, Becchetti C, Germani G. NAFLD and liver transplantation: Disease burden, current management and future challenges. JHEP Rep 2020; 2(6):100192. doi: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2020.100192. 20. Fuchs A, Janssens U, Mayet W-J, Mertens P, Müller O-A, Pfeifer M et al., Hrsg. Rationelle Diagnostik und Therapie in der inneren Medizin: Kapitel 7.3: Nicht-alkoholische Fettlebererkrankung (NAFLD). München: Elsevier GmbH; 2022. 21. Fuchs A, Janssens U, Mayet W-J, Mertens P, Müller O-A, Pfeifer M et al., Hrsg. Rationelle Diagnostik und Therapie in der inneren Medizin: Kapitel 7.2: Alkoholische Lebererkrankungen. München: Elsevier GmbH; 2022. 22. Desmet VJ, Gerber M, Hoofnagle JH, Manns M, Scheuer PJ. Classification of chronic hepatitis: diagnosis, grading and staging. Hepatology 1994; 19(6):1513–20. 23. Ishak K, Baptista A, Bianchi L, Callea F, Groote J de, Gudat F et al. Histological grading and staging of chronic hepatitis. J Hepatol 1995; 22(6):696–9. doi: 10.1016/0168-8278(95)80226-6. 24. Bedossa P, Poynard T. An algorithm for the grading of activity in chronic hepatitis C. The METAVIR Cooperative Study Group. Hepatology 1996; 24(2):289–93. doi: 10.1002/hep.510240201. 25. Younossi ZM, Golabi P, Avila L de, Paik JM, Srishord M, Fukui N et al. The global epidemiology of NAFLD and NASH in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hepatol 2019; 71(4):793–801. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2019.06.021. 26. Castera L, Laouenan C, Vallet-Pichard A, Vidal-Trécan T, Manchon P, Paradis V et al. High Prevalence of NASH and Advanced Fibrosis in Type 2 Diabetes: A Prospective Study of 330 Outpatients Undergoing Liver Biopsies for Elevated ALT, Using a Low Threshold. Diabetes Care 2023; 46(7):1354–62. doi: 10.2337/dc22-2048. 27. Castera L, Laouenan C, Vallet-Pichard A, Vidal-Trécan T, Manchon P, Paradis V et al. High Prevalence of NASH and Advanced Fibrosis in Type 2 Diabetes: A Prospective Study of 330 Outpatients Undergoing Liver Biopsies for Elevated ALT, Using a Low Threshold. Diabetes Care 2023; 46(7):1354–62. doi: 10.2337/dc22-2048. 28. Harrison SA, Ratziu V, Anstee QM, Noureddin M, Sanyal AJ, Schattenberg JM et al. Design of the phase 3 MAESTRO clinical program to evaluate resmetirom for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2024; 59(1):51–63. doi: 10.1111/apt.17734. 29. Demir M, Lang S, Nierhoff D, Drebber U, Hardt A, Wedemeyer I et al. Stepwise combination of simple noninvasive fibrosis scoring systems increases diagnostic accuracy in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Clin Gastroenterol 2013; 47(8):719–26. doi: 10.1097/MCG.0b013e3182819a89. 30. Petta S, Wong VW-S, Cammà C, Hiriart J-B, Wong GL-H, Vergniol J et al. Serial combination of non-invasive tools improves the diagnostic accuracy of severe liver fibrosis in patients with NAFLD. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 46(6):617–27. doi: 10.1111/apt.14219. 31. Boursier J, Vergniol J, Guillet A, Hiriart J-B, Lannes A, Le Bail B et al. Diagnostic accuracy and prognostic significance of blood fibrosis tests and liver stiffness measurement by FibroScan in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol 2016; 65(3):570–8. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.04.023. 32. Labenz C, Huber Y, Kalliga E, Nagel M, Ruckes C, Straub BK et al. Predictors of advanced fibrosis in non-cirrhotic non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Germany. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2018; 48(10):1109–16. doi: 10.1111/apt.14976. 33. Wong VW-S, Vergniol J, Wong GL-H, Foucher J, Chan HL-Y, Le Bail B et al. Diagnosis of fibrosis and cirrhosis using liver stiffness measurement in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 2010; 51(2):454–62. doi: 10.1002/hep.23312. 1. Weiß J, Rau M, Geier A. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: epidemiology, clinical course, investigation, and treatment. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2014; 111(26):447–52. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2014.0447. 2. Roeb E, Canbay A, Bantel H, Bojunga J, Laffolie J de, Demir M et al. Aktualisierte S2k-Leitlinie nicht-alkoholische Fettlebererkrankung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Gastroenterologie, Verdauungs- und Stoffwechselkrankheiten (DGVS) – April 2022 – AWMF-Registernummer: 021–025. Z Gastroenterol 2022; 60(9):1346–421. doi: 10.1055/a-1880-2283. 3. Rinella ME, Lazarus JV, Ratziu V, Francque SM, Sanyal AJ, Kanwal F et al. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. J Hepatol 2023; 79(6):1542–56. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2023.06.003. 4. Israelsen M, Torp N, Johansen S, Thiele M, Krag A. MetALD: new opportunities to understand the role of alcohol in steatotic liver disease. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2023; 8(10):866–8. doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(23)00206-6. 5. Åberg F, Byrne CD, Pirola CJ, Männistö V, Sookoian S. Alcohol consumption and metabolic syndrome: Clinical and epidemiological impact on liver disease. J Hepatol 2023; 78(1):191–206. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2022.08.030. 6. Lee BP, Dodge JL, Terrault NA. National prevalence estimates for steatotic liver disease and subclassifications using consensus nomenclature. Hepatology 2023. doi: 10.1097/HEP.0000000000000604. 7. Hagström H, Vessby J, Ekstedt M, Shang Y. 99% of patients with NAFLD meet MASLD criteria and natural history is therefore identical. J Hepatol 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2023.08.026. 8. Li M, Zhang W, Li X, Liang S, Zhang Y, Mo Y et al. Metabolic and Risk Profiles of Lean and Non-Lean Hepatic Steatosis among US Adults. Nutrients 2023; 15(13). doi: 10.3390/nu15132856. 9. Sookoian S, Pirola CJ. Systematic review with meta-analysis: risk factors for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease suggest a shared altered metabolic and cardiovascular profile between lean and obese patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 46(2):85–95. doi: 10.1111/apt.14112. 10. Arrese M, Cabrera D, Kalergis AM, Feldstein AE. Innate Immunity and Inflammation in NAFLD/NASH. Dig Dis Sci 2016; 61(5):1294–303. doi: 10.1007/s10620-016-4049-x. 11. Day CP, James OF. Steatohepatitis: a tale of two „hits“? Gastroenterology 1998; 114(4):842–5. doi: 10.1016/s0016-5085(98)70599-2. 12. Mehta R, Jeiran K, Koenig AB, Otgonsuren M, Goodman Z, Baranova A et al. The role of mitochondrial genomics in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). BMC Med Genet 2016; 17(1):63. doi: 10.1186/s12881-016-0324-0. 13. Chow MD, Lee Y-H, Guo GL. The role of bile acids in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Mol Aspects Med 2017; 56:34–44. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2017.04.004. 14. Tilg H, Adolph TE, Moschen AR. Multiple Parallel Hits Hypothesis in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Revisited After a Decade. Hepatology 2021; 73(2):833–42. doi: 10.1002/hep.31518. 15. Bedossa P, Poitou C, Veyrie N, Bouillot J-L, Basdevant A, Paradis V et al. Histopathological algorithm and scoring system for evaluation of liver lesions in morbidly obese patients. Hepatology 2012; 56(5):1751–9. doi: 10.1002/hep.25889. 16. Kleiner DE, Brunt EM, van Natta M, Behling C, Contos MJ, Cummings OW et al. Design and validation of a histological scoring system for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 2005; 41(6):1313–21. doi: 10.1002/hep.20701. 17. Bellentani S. The epidemiology of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Liver Int 2017; 37 Suppl 1:81–4. doi: 10.1111/liv.13299. 18. Bataller R, Rombouts K, Altamirano J, Marra F. Fibrosis in alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2011; 25(2):231–44. doi: 10.1016/j.bpg.2011.02.010. 19. Burra P, Becchetti C, Germani G. NAFLD and liver transplantation: Disease burden, current management and future challenges. JHEP Rep 2020; 2(6):100192. doi: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2020.100192. 20. Fuchs A, Janssens U, Mayet W-J, Mertens P, Müller O-A, Pfeifer M et al., Hrsg. Rationelle Diagnostik und Therapie in der inneren Medizin: Kapitel 7.3: Nicht-alkoholische Fettlebererkrankung (NAFLD). München: Elsevier GmbH; 2022. 21. Fuchs A, Janssens U, Mayet W-J, Mertens P, Müller O-A, Pfeifer M et al., Hrsg. Rationelle Diagnostik und Therapie in der inneren Medizin: Kapitel 7.2: Alkoholische Lebererkrankungen. München: Elsevier GmbH; 2022. 22. Desmet VJ, Gerber M, Hoofnagle JH, Manns M, Scheuer PJ. 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